Friday, September 19, 2008

Crataegus

Hawthorn is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the family Rosaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, Asia and North America. The name ''hawthorn'' was originally applied to the species native to northern Europe, especially the Common Hawthorn ''C. monogyna'', and the unmodified name is often so used in and Ireland. However the name is now also applied to the entire genus, and also to the related Asian genus ''Rhaphiolepis''.


They are shrubs and small trees growing to 5-15 m tall, characterized by their small pome fruit and thorny branches. The bark is smooth grey in young individuals, developing shallow longitudinal fissures with narrow ridges in older trees. The fruits are sometimes known as "haws", from which the name derived. The thorns grow from branches, and are typically 1-3 cm long. The leaves grow spirally arranged on long shoots, and in clusters on spur shoots on the branches or twigs. The leaves themselves have lobed or serrate margins and are somewhat variable shape.

The number of species in the genus depends on taxonomic interpretation, with numerous ; some botanists recognise a thousand or more species, while others reduce the number to 200 or fewer.

Hawthorns provide food and shelter for many species of birds and mammals, and the flowers are important for many nectar-feeding insects. Hawthorns are also used as food plants by the larvae of a Lepidoptera species.

Many species and hybrids are used as and street trees. The Common Hawthorn is extensively used in Europe as a plant. Several cultivars of the Midland Hawthorn ''C. laevigata'' have been selected for their pink or red flowers. Hawthorns are among the trees most recommended for water-conservation landscapes.

Selected species




Uses


Culinary use


The fruits of the species ''Crataegus pinnatifida'' are tart, bright red, and resemble small fruits. They are used to make many kinds of Chinese snacks, including haw flakes and '''' . The fruits, which are called ''shānzhā'' in Chinese, are also used to produce jams, jellies, juices, alcoholic beverages, and other drinks . In South Korea, a liquor called ''sansachun'' is made from the fruits.To the western palate, drinks made from the fruits taste similar to barbecue sauce. and you can grind it up and smoke it

The fruits of ''Crataegus pubescens'' are known in Mexico as ''tejocotes'' and are eaten raw, cooked, or in jam during the winter months. They are stuffed in the ''pi?atas'' broken during the traditional pre-Christmas parties known as ''posadas''. They are also cooked with other fruits to prepare a Christmas punch. The mixture of ''tejocote'' paste, sugar, and chili powder produces a popular Mexican candy called ''rielitos'', which is manufactured by several brands.

In the southern United States fruits of three native species are collectively known as mayhaws and are made into jellies which are considered a great delicacy. In Canada, where hawthorns are strongly associated with the culture of Manitoulin Island, the fruits are commonly known as hawberries.

The leaves are edible and, if picked in the months of April and May, they are tender enough to be used in salads.

Medicinal use


The dried fruits of ''Crataegus pinnatifida'' are used in naturopathic medicine and traditional Chinese medicine, primarily as a digestive aid. A closely related species, ''Crataegus cuneata'' is used in a similar manner. Other species are used in Western herbal medicine, where the plant is believed to strengthen cardiovascular function . In recent years, this use has been noted and adopted by Chinese herbalists as well . Hawthorn is also used as an aid to lower blood pressure, and treat some heart related diseases.

;Clinical trials
Several clinical trials have assessed the ability of hawthorn to help improve exercise tolerance in people with NYHA class II cardiac insufficiency compared to placebo. One trial, at for 4 to 8 weeks, found no difference from placebo. The second trial, including 78 subjects for 8 weeks, found "significant improvement in exercise tolerance" and lower blood pressure and heart rate during exercise. The third trial, including 32 subjects for 8 weeks, found improved exercise tolerance as well as a reduction in the "incidence and severity of symptoms such as dyspnea" and fatigue decreased by approximately 50% .

In the HERB-CHF clinical trial, 120 patients took 450mg of hawthorn extract twice daily for 6 months in combination with standard therapy and a standardized exercise program. "No effects of hawthorn were seen on either quality-of-life endpoint , or when adjusted for LVEF" .

One study, consisting of 1011 patients taking one tablet twice daily for 24 weeks, found "improvements in clinical symptoms , performance and exercise tolerance test, and ejection fraction" .

Other uses


The wood of some hawthorn species is very hard and resistant to rot. In rural North America it was prized for use as tool handles and fence posts.

Side effects


Overdose can cause cardiac arrhythmia and dangerously lower blood pressure. Milder side effects include nausea and sedation.


Folklore


The custom of employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on the 1st of May is of very early origin; but since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1752, the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The saying "Ne'er cast a cloot til Mey's oot" conveys a warning not to shed any before the summer has fully arrived and the may flowers are in full bloom.

The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar of Hymenaios. The supposition that the tree was the source of Jesus's crown of thorns gave rise doubtless to the tradition current among the French peasantry that it utters groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill-luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of , C. Oxyacantha, var. praecox, which flowers both in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of Joseph of Arimathea.

In Celtic lore, the hawthorn plant was used commonly for rune inscriptions along with and Apple. It was once said to heal the broken heart.

In Serbian folklore, a stake made of hawthorn wood was used to impale the corpses of suspected vampires.

Anecdote


During the seventies a facetious gardener working for the city of Vigo in Spain had a passion for grafting on common hawthorn. Onto seedlings of crataegus monogyna , he used to graft pink hawthorn, pear tree and medlar tree on the same trunk so the result was trees which gave pink and white flowers in May and fruits during the summer. He also performed chip budding grafts on hawthorn trunks in order to have several branches of several varieties on the same tree. He gave to these creations the name of sulcudus. Dozen of these trees have been planted in the various municipal gardens of the surrounding . Nowadays many of the sulcudus have disappeared, but it is still possible to admire a few specimens in the park of Pondevedra where in may the trees are all white and pink and in late August every passer by can pick nice ripe pears.



References and external links




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Crack seed

Crack seed is a category of snacks highly popular in Hawaii and its place of origin, China. Crack seed is basically preserved fruits that have been cracked or split with the seed or kernel partially exposed as a flavor enhancement. Common terms for this category of snacks is Li hing mui and see mui pronounced "see moy". The snack came with in the 19th century to Hawaii when they were brought to work the plantations.

The flavors are wide and varied ranging from extremely sweet and salty with sour tastes being a possibility as well. Flavors can include rock salt plum, honey mango, licorice peach, or any kind of marriage between fruit, flavor types or preservative ingredient. The largest innovator of flavors in this category is the Yick Lung Company which produces and distributes many varieties. What originally was a food category, preserved fruit, has become a favorite snack of Hawaiian children and a unique cultural food.

Chuanr

Chuanr is small pieces of meat roasted on skewers. Chuanr originated in the Xinjiang province of China and in recent years has been disseminated throughout the rest of the country, most notably in Beijing and Tianjin, where it is a popular street food. It is a product of the Chinese Islamic cuisine of the people and other .



Chuanr is small pieces of meat on skewers roasted over charcoal or, sometimes, electric heat. It is sometimes also cooked by deep frying in oil . It can be classified as a type of kebab. Chuanr was traditionally made from , which is still the most common, but now, chicken,pork, beef, and various types of seafood can also be used. Especially in touristy areas, chuanr can be found made with various insects and bugs, birds, and other exotic animals. In general, chuanr may be spiced according to preference, but generally cumin seed , dried flakes, salt, and sesame or sesame oil are sprinkled or brushed onto it. Another popular incarnation is mantou or steamed bun chuanr; it is commonly brushed with a sweet red bean paste , and its taste serves as a foil to the often spicy meat chuanrs.

In Tianjin, Chuanr is often served with small round breads , also grilled with the same spices. Xiàn bǐng technically means "pie" or "filled bread" -- after cooking bread and meat, the bread is split open and chuanr meat is put inside, then eaten together.

Chopsticks

Chopsticks are a pair of small equal-length tapered sticks, which are generally believed to have originated in ancient China, and are the traditional eating utensils of China, Japan, Korea, , and Vietnam.

Chopsticks are commonly used with their associated cuisine. Chopsticks can also now be found in some areas of Tibet and Nepal that are close to Han Chinese populations, due to cross-cultural influences. Chopsticks are commonly used in Xinjiang by Uyghurs and other nationalities to eat . In much of Southeast Asia chopsticks are usually used when eating noodles. Chopsticks are commonly made of wood, bamboo, metal, bone, ivory, and in modern times, plastic as well. The pair of sticks is maneuvered in one hand – between the thumb and fingers – and used to pick up pieces of food.

History


Chopsticks originated in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty , and were widely used throughout East Asia. The earliest evidence of a pair of chopsticks made out of bronze was excavated from Yin Ruins's Tomb 1005 at Houjiazhuang, Anyang, Henan, dated roughly 1200 BC. Chopsticks were also common household items of civilized on the Mongolian steppes during the 6th–8th centuries.

Etymology



The English word "chopstick" seems to have been derived from Chinese Pidgin English, a pidgin in which "chop chop" meant quickly.

The word for chopsticks is ''kuàizi'' 筷子. 筷 is a compound with a phonetic part of "快", which means ''quick'', and a semantic part, 竹, meaning bamboo. In Chinese, the old word for "chopsticks", and also in some varieties of modern Chinese such as , was ''zhù'' . However, ''zhù'' became a taboo on ships because it sounded the same as another word meaning "to stop" . Consequently, it was replaced by a word of opposite meaning, ''kuài'' . This gradually spread until it became the word for "chopsticks" in most varieties of modern Chinese. The character for this new meaning of "chopsticks" for ''kuài'' has the of bamboo added to the character meaning "fast" ''kuài'' .

In , chopsticks are called ''hashi'', written . They are also known as , a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks.

In , 箸 is used in the compound ''jeotgarak'' which is composed of ''jeo'' and ''garak'' . ''Jeo'' cannot be used alone.

In , chopsticks are called "''??a''," also from 箸.

Spread to other Asian countries


While China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam had long included chopsticks as part of their traditional eating utensils, the use of chopsticks in a limited sense spread to other Asian countries in recent centuries with the influx of Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia.

Many countries in Southeast Asia had traditionally eaten with their hands, but through the influence of Chinese immigrants, countries such as Thailand began to use chopsticks, almost exclusively in noodle dishes. However, the eating of rice and other foods is generally eaten with a western spoon and fork rather than chopsticks.

Usage


Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the use of chopsticks. Held between the thumb and fingers of one hand, chopsticks are used -like to pick up portions of food, which are prepared and brought to the table in small and convenient pieces. Chopsticks may also be used as means for sweeping rice and other nominal morsels into the mouth directly from the bowl.

Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by left-handed people. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use as improper etiquette. Some historians believe this rule of etiquette originated from a Chinese legend.

In chopstick-using cultures, food is generally made into small pieces; however, some chopstick designs have carved rings encircling the tips to aid in grasping larger pieces of food. Rice, which would usually be nearly impossible to eat with chopsticks if prepared using methods, is usually prepared in East Asia with less water, which leads to "clumping" of the rice conducive to eating with chopsticks. The sticky characteristics of the rice also depend on the cultivar of rice; the cultivar used in East Asian countries is usually '''', which is a more naturally clumping kind of rice than ''indica'', the rice used in most and South Asian countries.

Types



There are several styles of chopsticks that vary in respect to:
* Length: Very long chopsticks, usually about 30 or 40 centimeters, tend to be used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods. In Japan they are called saibashi . Shorter chopsticks are generally used as eating utensils but are also used for cooking.
* Tapering: The end of the chopsticks for picking up food are tapered to a blunt or a pointed end. Blunt tapered chopsticks provide more surface area for holding food and for pushing rice into the mouth. Pointed tapered chopsticks allow for easier manipulation of food and for picking out bones from whole cooked fish.
* Material: Chopsticks can be made from a variety of materials: bamboo, plastic, wood, bone, metal, jade, and ivory.
::*''Bamboo and wood'' chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and provide good grip for holding food due to their matte surfaces. They can warp and deteriorate with continued use. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of either bamboo or wood. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These often come as a piece of wood which is partially cut and must be broken into two chopsticks by the user . In Japanese, these are known as ''waribashi'' . Natural wood chopsticks, like natural wood food preparation surfaces, have an innate antibacterial property absent from other materials; lacquering or applying oil or paint to the wood surface reduces the antibacterial effectiveness.
::*''Plastic'' chopsticks are cheap and low in temperature conduction and are resistant to wear. However, due to their composition, plastic chopsticks are not as effective as wood and bamboo chopsticks for picking up food. Also, plastic chopsticks cannot be used for cooking since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds.
::*''Metal'' chopsticks are durable and are easy to clean. Like plastic chopsticks, metal chopsticks do not hold food as well as wood, or bone chopsticks. They also tend to be more expensive. Their higher heat conduction also means that they are not as comfortable to use in cooking.
::*Materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury reasons.
* Embellishments: Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted or lacquered to decorate them and make them waterproof. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed on the tapered end to make them less slippery when picking up foods. High-end metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation.

Styles of chopstick used in different cultures



* : longer sticks that are square in cross section at one end and round in cross section at the other , ending in a blunt tip.
* Japanese: short to medium length sticks that taper to a pointed end. This may be attributed to the fact that the Japanese diet includes large amounts of whole bony fish. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood and are lacquered. Some chopstick sets include two lengths of chopsticks: shorter ones for women and longer ones for men. Child-sized chopsticks are widely sold.
* Korean: medium-length stainless-steel tapered rods, with a flat rectangular cross section. Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated at the grip. They are sometimes used to pick up food onto the spoon,which then sends food into the mouth.
* Vietnamese: long sticks that taper to a blunt point; traditionally wooden, but now made of plastic as well. A ??a c? is a large pair of flat chopsticks that is used to serve rice from a pot.

Etiquette



It is important to note that the chopsticks are used in a large area. While principles of etiquette are similar, the finer points may differ from region to region, and there is no single standard for the use of chopsticks. Generally, chopsticks etiquette is similar to general Western etiquette regarding eating utensils.

Universal etiquette



*Chopsticks are not used to make noise, to draw attention, or to gesticulate. Playing with chopsticks is considered bad mannered and vulgar .
*Chopsticks are not used to move bowls or plates.
*Chopsticks are not used to toy with one's food or with dishes in common.
*Chopsticks are not used to pierce food, save in rare instances. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables and kimchi. In informal use, small, difficult-to-pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed, but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists.
*Chopsticks should not be left standing vertically in a bowl of rice or other food. Any stick-like object pointed upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members; certain funerary rites designate offerings of food to the dead using standing chopsticks.

Chinese etiquette


*In Chinese culture, it is normal to hold the rice bowl up to one's mouth and use chopsticks to push rice directly into the mouth. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a spoon or spork.
* It is acceptable to transfer food to closely related people if they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts.
* It is impolite to spear food with a chopstick and/or play with the chopsticks.
* It is rude to use the chopstick to dig for food in the common dish.
* Chopsticks should not be left sticking on the rice because it symbolizes "feeding" the dead and death in general.

Japanese etiquette


*Food should not be transferred from one's own chopsticks to someone else's chopsticks. Japanese people will always offer their plate to transfer it directly, or pass a person's plate along if the distance is great. Transferring directly is how bones are passed as part of .
*The pointed ends of the chopsticks should be placed on a chopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used.
*Reversing chopsticks to use the opposite clean end is commonly used to move food from a communal plate, although it is not considered to be proper manners. Rather, the group should ask for extra chopsticks to transfer food from a communal plate.
*Chopsticks should not be crossed on a table or vertically stuck in the rice, as this symbolizes death.
*It is rude to rub wooden chopsticks together after breaking them apart, as this communicates to the host that the user thinks the chopsticks are cheap.

Korean etiquette


*Koreans consider it rude to pick up the rice bowl from the table to eat from it.
*Unlike other chopstick cultures, Koreans use a spoon for their rice and soup, and chopsticks for most other things at the table.
*Unlike the rice eaten in many parts of China, cooked Korean rice can be easily picked up with chopsticks, although eating rice with a spoon is more acceptable.
*When laying chopsticks down on the table next to a spoon, one must never put the chopsticks to the left of the spoon. Chopsticks are only laid to the left for deceased family members.
*The blunt handle ends of chopsticks are not used to transfer food from common dishes.
*When no communal chopsticks are available, it is perfectly acceptable to pick up ''banchan'' and eat it without putting it down on one's bowl first.
*Also, there is an old saying suggesting that the closer one's hand is to the tips of the chopsticks, the longer they stay unmarried.

Vietnamese etiquette


*As with Chinese etiquette, the rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice is pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks.
*Unlike with Chinese dishes, it is also practical to use chopsticks to pick up rice in plates, such as fried rice, because Vietnamese rice is typically sticky.
*It is proper to always use two chopsticks at once, even when using them for stirring.
*One should not pick up food from the table and place it directly in the mouth. Food must be placed in your own bowl first.
*Chopsticks should not be placed in the mouth while choosing food.
*Chopsticks should never be placed in a "V" shape when done eating; it is interpreted as a bad omen.

Environmental impact




In China alone, an estimated 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are used and thrown away annually. This adds up to 1.7 million cubic metres of timber or 25 million fully grown trees every year. To encourage that people use and throw away less, a five percent tax was added to the price of chopsticks in China. This measure is part of the first tax package in 12 years.

Reusable metal chopsticks have grown in popularity in recent years. The singer has publicly advocated their use.

Medical problems


A 2003 study found that regular use of chopsticks may slightly increase the risk of osteoarthritis in the hand, a condition in which cartilage is worn off, leading to pain in the hand joints, particularly among the elderly. There have also been concerns regarding the use of certain disposable chopsticks made from dark wood bleached white that may pose a health risk, causing coughing or leading to asthma.

A 2006 Hong Kong Department of Health survey found that the proportion of people using serving chopsticks, spoons or other serving utensils has increased from 46% to 65% since the SARS outbreak in 2003.

Chinese food therapy

Chinese food therapy is a practice of healing using natural foods instead of medications.

Chinese food therapy is a modality of traditional Chinese medicine, also known as Chinese Nutrition therapy. It is particularly popular among people who enjoy slow-cooked soups. One of the most commonly known is a rice soup that goes by many names including ''congee'' and ''jook''. This is a traditional breakfast of Asian people all over the world. Congee recipes vary infinitely, depending upon the desired health benefits as well as taste.

Chinese food therapy dates back as early as 2000 BC. However, proper documentation was only found around 500 BC. The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine also known as the Niejing, which was written around 300 BC, was most important in forming the basis of Chinese food therapy. It classified food by four food groups, five tastes and by their natures and characteristics.

Philosophy about food


The ideas of yin and yang are used in the sphere of food and cooking. ''Yang'' foods are believed to increase the body's heat , while ''Yin'' foods are believed to decrease the body's heat . As a generalization, ''Yang'' foods tend to be dense in food energy, especially energy from fat, while ''Yin'' foods tend to have high water content. The Chinese ideal is to eat both types of food to keep the body in balance.
A person eating too much ''Yang'' food might suffer from acne and bad breath while a person lacking ''Yang'' food might be lethargic or anemic.

Cantonese classification of food



Cantonese people pay much attention to the body's reaction to food.
Food items are classified accordingly, and diet is adjusted based on the body's conditions.
In effect, many Cantonese people practice food therapy in day to day situations.
The following is a list of common food classifications:



The ''yin yang'' type of each individual determines how susceptible the person is to these effects of food. A neutral person is generally healthy and will have strong reactions to these effects only after overconsumption of certain kind of food. A ''yang'' type person usually can eat all ''yin'' type food with no ill effect, but may easily get a nose bleed with small amount of ''yang'' type food. A ''yin'' type person is usually very unhealthy and is reactive to either ''yin'' or ''yang'' food. ''Boosting'' or ''nourishing'' type of food is needed to bring a ''yin'' person back to health.

Some common food therapy items and recipes




Oral secretion of swiftlets, collected from the binding material of their nests.
*Alleged effects: promote beautiful skin for women; "strengthen the spleen and open up the stomach"
*vegetables and fruits are believed to nullify the effect of bird nest if taken within the same day.
*The dried material is soaked in water to rehydrate.
*The soaked bird nest is cleaned by hand to remove other nest building debris such as grass and feathers.
*The cleaned and crumbled bird nest is with rock sugar as a dessert or with a small amount of pork as a soup.

Korean or Chinese ginseng


Root of a plant that has the properties.
*Alleged effects: promote circulation, increase blood supply, revitalize and aid recovery from weakness after illness.
*The ginseng root is double steamed with chicken meat as a soup.

American ginseng


Root of a plant similar to Korean ginseng, but it has the properties.
*Alleged effects: cleansing of excessive Yang in the body, aphrodisiac.
*The ginseng is sliced, a few slices are soaked in hot water to make a tea.
*Most American ginseng is produced in Wisconsin, USA.

A Cantonese cough remedy


Dried duck gizzards, watercress, apricot kernels :

Note: the following does not constitute medical advice. Please consult a physician.
*Alleged effects: relieve both Yin or Yang type of coughing.
*Watercress is for removing excessive yang in the body.
*The sweet apricot kernels and bitter apricot kernels target the lungs.
*The dried duck gizzards are used to balance the Yin Yang of the recipe.
*Watercress is available in most supermarkets while the rest of the ingredients can be found in most Chinese herb stores.
*The ingredients are slow cooked for couple of hours into a soup, a small piece of pork is optional for flavor.
*Do not use Yang type meat such as beef or chicken in this recipe because they nullify the effects of the watercress.

Chinese aristocrat cuisine

Chinese aristocrat cuisine traces its origin to the and dynasties when the Imperial officials stationed in Beijing brought their private chefs and such different variety of culinary styles mixed and developed overtime and formed a unique breed of its own, and thus the aristocrat cuisine is often called private cuisine. The current Chinese aristocrat cuisine is a mixture of Shandong cuisine, Huaiyang cuisine and Cantonese cuisine. Since Beijing was the capital for the last three Chinese dynasties, most of the Chinese aristocrat cuisine originated in Beijing. The most famous Chinese aristocrat cuisine include:
*Cuisine of the family of Tan : or Tan Family's Cuisine, which is characterized by its elaborate work, softness, freshness, and pleasing taste/flavor. The cuisine is currently served at Beijing Hotel.
*Cuisine of the family of Li : or Li Family's Cuisine, which was offered in its own restaurant.
*Cuisine of the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' : derived from the famous Chinese novel Dream of the Red Chamber, first fielded in 1983 by Laijinyuxuan restaurant located in the Bejing Zhongshan Park in Beijing.
*Confucian cuisine : Family cuisine of Confucius' offsprings, characterized by the direct reflection of Confucianism in that there is a strict rule of different classes of banquets assigned for different occasions according to the status of attendees and the specific event.

Chinese Islamic cuisine

Chinese Islamic cuisine is the cuisine of the and other Muslims living in China.

History


Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to, or are run by, Muslims. Northern Chinese Islamic cuisine originated in China proper. It is heavily influenced by Beijing cuisine, with nearly all cooking methods identical, and differs only in material due to religious restrictions. As a result, northern Islamic cuisine is often included in Beijing cuisine.

Traditionally, there is a distinction between northern and southern Chinese Islamic cuisine despite both utilizing mutton and . Northern Chinese Islamic cuisine relies heavily on beef, but rarely ducks, geese, shrimp or seafood, while southern Islamic cuisine is the reverse. The reason for this difference is due to availability of the ingredients. Oxen have been long used for farming and Chinese governments have frequently strictly prohibited the slaughter of oxen for food. However, due to the geographic proximity of the northern part of China to minority-dominated regions that were not subjected to such restrictions, beef could be easily purchased and transported to northern China. At the same time, ducks, geese, and shrimp are rare in comparison to southern China due to the arid climate of northern China.

A Chinese Islamic restaurant can be similar to a with the exception that there is no pork on the menu. The Chinese word for halal is "pure truth" food , so a Chinese Islamic restaurant is a "qingzhen restaurant" that serves "qingzhen" food.

In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants typically run by migrants from Western China , which offer inexpensive noodle soup. These restaurants are typically decorated with Islamic motifs such as pictures of Islamic rugs and Arabic writing.

Another difference is that and dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions.

Many cafeterias at Chinese universities have separate sections or dining areas for Muslim students , typically labeled "qingzhen." Student ID cards sometimes indicate whether a student is Muslim, and will allow access to these dining areas, or will allow access on special occasions such as the Eid feast following Ramadan.

Famous Dishes


Lamian



Lamian is a Chinese dish of hand-made noodles, usually served in a beef or mutton-flavored soup , but sometimes stir-fried and served with a tomato-based sauce. Literally, 拉 means to pull or stretch, while 麵 means noodle. The hand-making process involves taking a lump of dough and repeatedly stretching it to produce a single very long noodle.

Chuanr



Chuanr , originating in the Xinjiang province of China and in recent years has been disseminated throughout the rest of that country, most notably in Beijing. It is a product of the Chinese Islamic cuisine of the people and other . Yang rou chuan, or lamb kebabs, is particularly popular.


Beef noodle soup



Beef noodle soup is a noodle soup dish composed of stewed beef, beef broth, vegetables and wheat noodles. It exists in various forms throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia. The most common Vietnamese version is called Bo kho, but which uses rice noodles instead. It was created by the Hui people during the Tang Dynasty of China.

In the West, this food may be served in a small portion as a soup. In China, a large bowl of it is often taken as a whole meal with or without any side dish.

Suan cai



Suan cai or Chinese Sauerkraut is a traditional Chinese cuisine vegetable dish used in a variety of ways. It consists of pickled Chinese cabbage. Suan cai is a unique form of pao cai due to the material used and the method of production. Although ''suan cai'' is not exclusively Chinese Islamic cuisine, it is used in Chinese Islamic cuisine to top off noodle soups, especially beef noodle soup.

Nang


''Nang'' 馕 - A type of round unleavened bread, topped with sesame - similar to South and Central Asia naan.

Image gallery

Chicken lollipop

Chicken lollipop is an hors doeuvre that is made from the middle segments of chicken wings. The middle segment has one of the two bones removed, and the flesh on the segments is pushed to one end of the bone. These are then coated in a spicy red and . It is also a popular item in Indian Chinese cuisine, served with Sichuan sauce.

Further reading


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Chicken balls

Chicken balls are a food consisting of small, spherical or nearly-spherical pieces of . They are prepared and eaten in several different cuisines.

In Canadian and British Chinese cuisine


Chicken balls are a type of non-traditional Chinese food served in and the United Kingdom as a staple of take-out. The dish consists of small chunks of fried chicken breast meat covered in a crispy coating. They are often served with sweet and sour sauce or plum sauce. These are largely unheard of in the United States, and apparently even China, depending on the recipe and referred name.

In East and Southeast Asian cuisines


Another kind of chicken balls, which are similar to southern Chinese fish balls, may be found in countries in East and Southeast Asia, such as the Philippines and Japan .

In other cuisines


Chicken balls are also a part of several other culinary traditions, including cuisine and Muslim cuisine.

Chatang

Chatang or seasoned flour mush is a traditional gruel common to both Beijing cuisine and Tianjin cuisine, and often sold as a snack on the street. It is made from sorghum flour and/or broomcorn millet and/or proso millet flour and glutinous millet flour. The literal translation of the Chinese name is misleading, because there is neither any tea nor any soup in this dish.

The dish is prepared in two steps. First, flours of sorghum and/or millet are cooked in advance, often stir fried, and after the completion, the flour is ready to be served. When a customer orders the dish, hot water is poured into the bowl containing the flour to create a paste-like mush, and it is served with white and/or brown sugar, and Sweet Osmanthus sauce . Interestingly, the Sweet Osmanthus plant is not native to northern China.

Traditionally, the skill of the server judged on several factors and one of them is the requirement is regarding the resulting mush: the most skillful server would be able to create the mush that is so thick that when a chopstick is inserted into the mush, it remains vertical, while at the same time the mush remains fluid. Other criteria for the servers' skills included the ability not splash any hot water outside the bowl and spill out any flours, because traditionally all ingredients are placed in a bowl, into which is poured boiling water from a special copper kettle with a long, dragon-shaped spout called . and special skills were needed to handle this equipment. The ingredients are then stirred together and the ''chatang'' is eaten with a spoon.

Kettle



Traditionally, ''chatang'' vendors were easily distinguished by the kettle they used. The kettle was extremely large, up to four feet tall with a diameter in excess of a foot, and was often made of copper. There are two kinds of kettles: those used by street vendors, and those found in restaurants and tea houses. The two differ in internal structure.

The kettles used by street vendors have a more complex internal structure. They are double layered, with fuel in the inner layer in the center, and water in the outside layer. The advantage of such a structure is that it reduces the need to carry a stove to heat the water in the kettle, and it improves fuel efficiency since most heat is utilized, in contrast to the use of a separate kettle and stove. Furthermore, in the windy weather conditions of northern China, such a structure prevents the flame from being blown out by the wind if there are separate ordinary stovetop kettle and stove.

Despite the two varieties of kettles' identical external appearance, the complex structure of the kettles used by street vendors is not present for those used in restaurants and tea houses, for obvious reasons: since the stove is located inside, it is immune to the windy weather outside and stoves are necessary to cook other dishes, so there is no need to pay extra for a more expensive kettle with such a complex structure.

Cultural representations


The different ways of serving seasoned flour mush have some cultural significance in distinguishing that of Beijing cuisine from Tianjin cuisine, since the same kind of seasoned flour mush tastes identical. Traditionally, the styles of serving were clearly different when the hot water is poured from the kettle:

The way hot water was poured in Beijing cuisine was that the server stood straight up, with legs apart at distance greater than the width of his shoulder, while the upper body leaned toward the bowl. In contrast, the way hot water was poured in Tianjin cuisine was that the server was in a semi-squatting down position with body straight. Obviously, such a feat is rather dangerous, especially without any specialized training, and thus the special kettle is phased out when modern technology enables the dish to be served like coffee, and the use of kettle only survives in extremely rare occasions as a cultural heritage demonstration.

Seasoned proso millet mush


Seasoned proso millet mush, or mian cha in Chinese, is a special kind of seasoned flour mush . Like the ''seasoned flour mush'', , the Chinese literal translation of the name of this dish is also misleading, because it means noodle tea, but there is neither noodles nor tea in this dish.

The ''seasoned proso millet mush'' is unique in two ways. First, it only uses proso millet flour instead of sorghum and millet flour. Second, instead of using Sweet Osmanthus sauce in regular ''seasoned flour mush'', , sesame tahini was used, while the sugar in the regular ''seasoned flour mush'', is replaced by a mix of ground Sichuan peppercorns and salt.

Seasoned oily flour mush


Seasoned oily flour mush, or you cha in Chinese, is the non-vegetarian variety of the ''seasoned flour mush'' . Like the ''seasoned flour mush'', , the Chinese literal translation of the name of this dish is also misleading, because ''you cha'' is also the Chinese name for the Tea-oil Camellia, the plant that is the source for . Obviously, the dish is not a plant and there is not any product from the plant in this dish. In fact, when is taken uncooked, it is toxic.

The flour used to make ''seasoned oily flour mush'' is the same as that used for ''seasoned flour mush'' ; that is, it can be any of the sorghum, millet, or proso millet. The flour is often stir fried together with beef fat, and sometimes with beef bone marrow added. After the preparation of the flour is completed, the dish is served the same way as other seasoned flour / proso millet mush .

Caribbean Chinese cuisine

Caribbean Chinese cuisine is a popular style of food resulting from a fusion of and . The Chinese influence is predominantly , the main source of Chinese immigrants to the West Indies. West Indian food is itself a mixture of , , , , and cooking styles.

Although a long-favoured cuisine in West-Indian eateries and Chinese-Caribbean households, it is only recently that an explosion in Caribbean-Chinese restaurants has occurred in Canada and the United States. These are more often than not owing to that country’s particular historical connection to Chinese immigration, although signs may also disclaim “Caribbean Chinese food,” “West Indian & Chinese Cuisine” or variations thereof.

History



In 1834 the black British working in the Caribbean colonies were freed, creating a labour vacuum that was filled by indentured labourers from Madeira, India and China. A sizeable portion of these immigrants were destined for , Jamaica, and Guyana.

The first groups of Chinese immigrants were forcibly kidnapped or deceived into making the journey, although this practice was curbed somewhat by an agreement between British and Chinese authorities to formally supervise recruitment processes. From then on families were encouraged to emigrate, although often without being completely informed of the working and living conditions, or their contractual obligations. Chinese women began arriving in 1860, but in small numbers. The period from 1860 to 1866 saw a relatively large influx of immigrants, bringing the local Chinese population in British Guyana to a peak of 10 022 in 1866. There would be only two ships to supplement this population following 1866, and afterwards Chinese immigrants came of their own free will and at their own expense.

Character



It could be said that Cantonese and Caribbean cuisines fit well together, as the former is known for its heavy starches and sauces while the latter, for its pungent meats and spices. The fusion of the two cooking styles and ingredients has resulted in an emerging cuisine that grows more and more popular every day.

Staples


The menus of Caribbean Chinese restaurants are greatly affected by whether or not the restaurant identifies with a specific Caribbean nation or not. Dishes from nation-specific restaurants are often variations on local specialities, in addition to more widely-known food items:

* Cha Chee Kai — Crispy Chicken with Skin in sauce.
* Chicken-in-the-Rough Fried Rice — Fried rice tossed with batter-fried chicken parts.
* Jerk Chow Mein — Jerk Pork or fried with mixed vegetables, soft egg noodles, and sauce.
* Curried Duck Roti — Potatoes and Duck in a curry sauce, rolled in a flakey flatbread.
* Bangamary Ding — Fried '''' tossed with cashews and mixed vegetables.
* Char Siu Pork Dhalpouri — Chinese pork, peas, onions and geerah rolled in a Roti.

Culture



Caribbean Chinese restaurants enjoy considerable popularity in Toronto and . Both cities have large Chinese and Caribbean populations.

Canadian Chinese cuisine

Canadian Chinese cuisine or Can/Chinese is a popular style of cooking exclusive to take-out and dine-in eateries found across Canada. It was the first form of commercially-available Chinese food available in Canada. This cooking style was invented by early immigrants who adapted traditional to Western tastes. This usually required altering cooking times, ingredients, and preparation methods so that the dishes were more agreeable to the Canadian palate. This cuisine developed alongside a similar version in the .

History




Chinese workers were employed in the 1800s by Chinese labour contractors during the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway linking with Vancouver. Many of those workers who stayed once the railway was completed resorted to opening small inexpensive restaurants or working as cooks in mining and logging camps, , and in the houses of the upper classes in cities and towns. They prepared variations on traditional Cantonese food that were well-received by local patrons and they were prized as cooks in wealthier households. This occurred despite the fact that few if any of them were trained chefs.
In most small towns in Western Canada, the Chinese “café” was the first restaurant established, and often the only one. People did not buy the food of their own ethnic group, since they could prepare those themselves, whereas Chinese food was a novelty. Furthermore, the Chinese community was not heavily involved in agriculture, so this presented an opportunity for an alternative source of income. Consequently the Chinese community specialized in the restaurant business, and were able to undercut and out compete later rivals. Even today in many towns and hamlets across the and in northern British Columbia, there can usually be found a Chinese café regardless of the community's size, serving "Canadian and Chinese cuisine" or, once more common, "Chinese and Western Food". In Glendon, Alberta, for example, next to a of the world's largest perogy , sits the Perogy Café, which serves "Ukrainian and Chinese Perogies" . This establishment is actually owned by a Vietnamese family and is the only restaurant in town.

In British Columbia, a form of buffet known as the Chinese smorgasbord developed in pre- Gastown when Scandinavian loggers and millworkers encouraged their Chinese cooks to turn a sideboard into a steamtable instead of bringing plates of single dishes to the dining table. Following the introduction of the automobile and the invention of the drive-in restaurant , Chinese take-out service was augmented by Chinese drive-ins, including the now-vanished Dragon Inn chain, which was also known for its smorgasbord.

In Vancouver and , the more authentic Chinese restaurants were largely found in those cities' Chinatowns, but Chinese food became a staple of city as well as small-town life and became a normal part of the local culture. Many British Columbians for example, grew up using chopsticks as well as knives and forks. Certain Chinese-Canadian recipes became current in non-Chinese households by the mid-20th Century .

Further Cantonese immigration to Canada began anew in the 1960s, and was ignited in the 1980s in anticipation of of Hong Kong. This resulted in many Hong Kong families relocating to Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, and above-all Canada. This preference for Canada was due to its immigration policy, a high-standard of living, established Chinese community, and its membership in the . Today Chinese Canadian citizens are the largest visible minority group in Canada, and Chinatowns are in every major Canadian city, with those in Vancouver, Calgary, Toronto and being the largest.

This new wave of Chinese immigration has also brought a demand for more authentic Chinese food. The newer Chinese restaurants, particularly in areas of high Asian immigration, tend to serve authentic Chinese cuisine that evolved in Chinese communities outside of Canada, which cater to immigrants. These range from Dim Sum restaurants to Hakka cuisine restaurants with an flair.

Staples


Chinese restaurants are usually small "mom & pop" businesses. Consequently the menus are highly variable, although the following dishes are generally universal:

* Cantonese style chow mein — 廣東炒麵 Fried egg noodles, green peppers, pea pods, bok choy, bamboo shoots, water chestnuts, shrimp, Chinese pork , chicken, and beef served in a thick sauce; typically marquee dish in a Canadian Chinese meal .
* Almond Chicken Soo Guy — Sliced breaded chicken breast with almonds and gravy. Usually known to anglophones as "almond chicken".
* Chop suey — Very similar to ''''.
* Chow mein — Very similar to '''', but with more beansprouts. "Hong Kong style chow mein" omits the beansprouts and is served on a bed of crunchy fried noodles.
* Won ton soup and wor won ton - pork and shrimp dumplings in a chicken broth, sometimes with sliced meats like .
* Hot and sour soup
* Jar doo chicken wings — Lightly breaded seasoned deep-fried chicken wings.
* Lo mein — 撈麵 Fried egg noodles and vegetables, sometimes served in a thick sauce.
* Shanghai noodles — Fried thick noodles
* Moo goo guy pan — Sliced chicken with mushrooms and mixed vegetables.
* Singapore noodles — Rice noodles, beef, and vegetables served in a curry sauce.
* Dry ribs — Deep-fried seasoned pork ribs.
* Sweet and sour pork — Deep-fried pork chunks in sauce, often breaded into balls . May have a slice of orange.
* Sweet and sour chicken balls — Deep-fried breaded chicken in sweet and sour sauce. In some Atlantic Canadian restaurants, the menus list this item only as "sweet and sour chicken," thus removing any reference to either the shape or the breaded coating.
* Ginger Beef — 生姜牛肉 Tender beef cut in chunks, mixed with ginger and Chinese mixed vegetables.
* Ginger Fried Beef — 乾炒牛肉絲 Tender beef cut in strings, battered, deep dried, then re-fried in wok mixed with a sweet sauce, a variation of a popular Northern Chinese dish.
* Dai dop voy — Fried sliced young chicken meat, fresh shrimps, barbecued pork with mixed Chinese vegetables.
* Diced pork ding — Cubed Chinese pork, almonds, and vegetables in a thick sauce .
* Kung Pao chicken
* Egg foo yung
* Egg rolls
* Potstickers/Fried Pork Dumplings — Generally filled with diced pork and vegetables in a doughy wrapper served pan-fried with a vinegar , sesame oil and ginger sauce. Often called "wor tips" in southern Alberta, especially at Chinese restaurants in Lethbridge. Also called Chinese perogies.
* Lemon chicken — Chicken breast, battered and deep-fried, then sliced and served with lemon sauce.
* Fried rice
*

Culture



Josephine Smart, a professor from the University of Calgary, has written on the evolution of Canadian Chinese cuisine. Her papers have examined the dynamics of localization and "authenticization" of Chinese food in Canada, and its implications for ethnic relations and the culture of .

Chinese restaurants generally use either one of the romanization systems for Cantonese or an ad hoc romanization rather than the Pinyin romanization of Mandarin Chinese with which non-Chinese people are now most familiar. This has the effect, intended or not, of lending a sense of exotic nostalgia to the dining experience.

Canadian Chinese restaurants



Even very small towns in most of Canada have at least one Canadian Chinese restaurant, and many can have two or more proprietors seeking out business, often right next to each other on the main street. Many towns that cannot support a single restaurant still have a thriving Chinese food restaurant. However, many independent restaurants in larger cities have found their business shrinking as delivery chains and buffets squeeze out traditional sit-down restaurants.

In larger cities like Toronto, Montreal, Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver, Canadian Chinese restaurants can be clustered in the thriving Chinatowns. However, they are now most likely mixed with those featuring the more traditional cuisines. Canadian Chinese restaurants are not limited to these areas and can often be found even at the farthest outskirts of the metropolitan areas. Restaurants in the newer Chinatowns, particularly in Toronto and Vancouver, tend to cater to newer immigrants and offer more varied fare; , , , , and even Buddhist cuisine restaurants can be found there. Because of the popularity of Canadian Chinese food, even some of the older authentic Chinese restaurants may offer Canadian Chinese dishes.

Buddhist cuisine

Buddhist cuisine is a kind of East Asian cuisine which is followed by some believers of Buddhism. It is a type of vegetarian cuisine.

Vegetarian cuisine is known as ''zhāicài'' in China, ''shōjin ryōri'' in Japan, ''sachal eumsik'' in Korea and by many other names in other countries.

Buddhism and vegetarianism


Buddhism, along with Jainism, recognizes that even eating vegetables could contribute to the indirect killing of living beings as animal life is destroyed as farmers plough land. Jainism consequently considers death by starvation as the ultimate practice of non violence, while Buddhism considers extreme self-mortification to be for attaining enlightenment.

Both Mahayana and Theravada thinking is that meat eating in and of itself does not constitute a violation of the Five Precepts which prohibit one from directly harming life. Pali/Sanskrit term for monks and nuns means one who seek alms.

However, when monks and nuns who follow the Theravada feed themselves by alms, they must eat whatever leftover foods which are given to them including meat. Exception to this alms rule is when monks and nuns have seen, heard or known that animal have been specifically killed to feed the alm seeker or guest, in which case, consumption of such meat would be karmically negative. This is also followed by lay Buddhists; and is known as the consumption of the 'triply-clean meat' . On the other hand, when lay communities specifically purchase meat for consumption of monks and nuns, permissibility of meat eating differ among different Buddhist sects. Theravada Pali Canon records instances of Buddha eating meat which were specifically purchased for Buddha. This act was deliberately performed by the Buddha to demonstrate that if need be, a Buddhist can bend the rules in times of emergency or inconvenience. Obstinately observing vegetarianism or Buddhist rules in times when you cannot, conflicts with Mahayana philosophy because obstinacy or attachment for anything, is considered to be 'stubbornness' which will become an obstacle to nirvana or enlightenment. However even then, if one undertakes a vow to be a , one is expected to follow this vow until it is humanly impossible to continue one's vegetarian diet.

Acceptance of authenticity of the Pali Sutras differ within Mahayana sects and Mahayana sutras do not record Buddha eating meat. While no Mahayana sects consider Pali sutras to be inauthentic, sects tend to consider this particular part of writing in Pali suttas to be false. sects generally accept that Buddha ate meat.

Still, both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhists consider that one may practice vegetarianism as part of cultivating paramita. Since Mahayana Buddhists recognise the consumption of meat to be cruel and devoid of compassion, some Mahayana Buddhists are vegetarians. Numbers of Mahayana sutra record Buddha praising the virtue of avoiding meat. However, Tibetan Buddhism believes that makes vegetarianism unnecessary. All Japanese Kamakura sects of Buddhism have relaxed Mahayana vinaya, and as a consequence, do not practice vegetarianism but rather pescetarianism. Chinese Buddhism and part of Korean Buddhism strictly adhere to vegetarianism.

Buddhism and other food considerations


East Asian "Buddhist" cuisine differ from Western vegetarian cuisine in one aspect, that is avoidance of killing plant life. Buddhist vinaya for monks and nuns prohibit harming of plant. Therefore, strictly speaking, no root vegetables are to be used as this will result in death of vegetables. Instead, vegetables such as beans or fruits are used. However, this stricter version of diet is often practiced only on special occasion. Some Mahayana Buddhists in China and Vietnam specifically avoid eating strong-smelling plants, traditionally garlic, ''Allium chinense'', asafoetida, shallot, and ''Allium victorialis'' , and refer to these as 'Five Acrid And Strong Smelling Vegetables' or 'Five Spices' as they tend to excite senses. This is based on teachings found in the , the Surangama Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra . In modern times this rule is often interpreted to include other vegetables of the genus, as well as coriander.

The food that a strict Buddhist takes, even if he/she is not a vegetarian is also specific. For many Chinese Buddhists, beef and the consumption of large animals and exotic species is avoided. Then there would be the aforementioned sanjingrou rule. One restriction on food that is not known to many is the abstinence from eating animal innards and organs. This is known as , and is a Chinese term and is not to be confused with the Japanese term ''gesui'' .

Alcohol and/or other drugs are also avoided by many Buddhists because of their effects on the mind and "mindfulness". It is part of the Five Precepts which dictate that one is not to consume "addictive materials". The definition of "addictive" depends on each individual but most Buddhists consider alcohol and contraband drugs to be addictive. Stricter Buddhists consider tobacco to be addictive as well.

Common sources for Buddhist foods



Buddhist vegetarian chefs have become extremely creative in imitating meat using prepared , also known as "seitan" or "wheat meat", soy , agar, and other plant products. Some of their recipes are the oldest and most-refined meat analogues in the world. Soy and wheat gluten are very versatile materials, because they can be manufactured into various shapes and textures, and they absorb flavourings , whilst having very little flavour of their own. With the proper seasonings, they can mimic various kinds of meat quite closely.

Some of these Buddhist vegetarian chefs are in the many which serve ''wu hun'' and mock-meat dishes to the monks and visitors . Many Buddhist restaurants also serve vegetarian, vegan, non-alcoholic, and/or ''wu hun'' dishes. Some Buddhists eat vegetarian only once per week or month, or on special occasions such as annual visits to an ancestor's grave. To cater to this type of customer, as well as full-time vegetarians, the menu of a Buddhist vegetarian restaurant usually shows no difference from a typical Chinese or far-Eastern restaurant, except that in recipes originally made to contain meat, a chicken flavoured soy or wheat gluten might be served instead .

American Chinese cuisine

American Chinese cuisine refers to the style of food served by certain restaurants in the United States. This type of cooking typically caters to tastes, and differs significantly from the .

History


In the 19th century, Chinese restaurateurs developed American Chinese cuisine when they modified their food for American tastes. First catering to railroad workers, they opened restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown. These restaurant workers adapted to using local ingredients and catered to their customer's tastes. Dishes on the menu were often given numbers, and often a roll and butter was offered on the side.

In the process, chefs would invent numerous dishes such as chop suey and General Tso's Chicken. As a result, they developed a style of Chinese food not found in China. Restaurants provided an ethnic niche for small businesses at a time when Chinese were often excluded from most jobs in the wage economy by discrimination or lack of language fluency.

For most of those who run such restaurants, wages tend to be low, and hours long as much of the labor is provided by immigrants or family members, but part of the attraction of Chinese restaurants is the quality and low cost of the food. In modern times, some Asian professionals invest their savings into running restaurants.

Types of restaurants


American Chinese restaurants may be divided into three primary categories:

*: These restaurants cater to customers who sit down in a dining room and order from a menu. They tend to provide more authentic Chinese food than fast-food restaurants or places of informal dining.

*Take-out: These restaurants, which cater primarily to call-in and take-out orders, serve as convenient outlets for traditional American Chinese dishes. Nearly all of them feature delivery to customers' homes, thus allowing the folded, waxed cardboard boxes that are commonly used to attain similar recognition as that of the pizza box.

*Buffets: Buffet-style American Chinese restaurants, which have recently seen an increase in popularity, tend to serve a wide variety of food in buffet style; the authenticity of the food varies from outlet to outlet.

Differences from native Chinese cuisines




American Chinese food typically treats vegetables as while cuisines of China emphasize vegetables. This can be seen in the use of carrots and tomatoes. Native Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leafy vegetables like bok choy and kai-lan and puts a greater emphasis on fresh meat and live seafood . As a result, American Chinese food is usually less pungent than authentic cuisine.


American Chinese food tends to be cooked very quickly with a great deal of oil and salt. Many dishes are quickly and easily prepared, and require inexpensive ingredients. Stir-frying, , and deep-frying tend to be the most common cooking techniques which are all easily done using a wok. The food also has a reputation for high levels of to enhance the flavor. The symptoms of MSG sensitivity have been dubbed "Chinese restaurant syndrome" or "Chinese food syndrome." Market forces and customer demand have encouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus, although some restaurateurs don't believe that people can be allergic to MSG.

Most American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers with menus written in English or containing pictures. If separate Chinese-language menus are available, they typically feature delicacies like liver, chicken feet or other exotic meat dishes that might deter Western customers. In New York's Chinatown, the restaurants are legendary for refusing to offer non-Chinese Americans the "secret" menu.

American Chinese cuisine often uses ingredients not native and very rarely used in China. The most famous of these is broccoli, which the majority of American Chinese cuisine meals contain.

Unlike certain establishments in China, American Chinese restaurants cannot serve dog or cat meat due to animal welfare regulations.

American Chinese dishes


Dishes that often appear on American Chinese menus include:
* General Tso's Chicken— chunks of chicken that are deep-fried and seasoned with ginger, garlic, sesame oil, scallions, and hot chili peppers.
* Sesame Chicken— boned, battered, and deep-fried chicken which is then dressed with a translucent but dark red, sweet, slightly sour, mildly spicy, semi-thick, Chinese soy sauce made from corn starch, vinegar, chicken broth, and sugar, and often served with steamed broccoli.
* Chinese chicken salad — Salad, in the form of uncooked leafy greens, does not exist in traditional Chinese cuisine for sanitary reasons, since manure and human feces were China's primary fertilizer through most of its history. It usually contains crispy noodle and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with mandarin oranges.
* Chop suey — connotes "leftovers" in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce but can also be served in a white sauce.
* Chow mein — literally means 'stir-fried noodles.' Chow mein consists of fried noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. It can come with chicken, beef, pork or shrimp.
* Crab rangoon — Fried wonton skins stuffed with artificial crab meat and cream cheese. is the former capital of .
* Fortune cookie — Invented at the Japanese Tea Garden in San Francisco, fortune cookies have become sweetened and found their way to many American Chinese restaurants. Fortune cookies have become so popular that even some authentic Chinese restaurants serve them at the end of the meal as dessert and may feature Chinese translations of the English fortunes.
* Fried rice — Pan-fried rice, usually with chunks of meat, vegetables, and often egg.

Regional American Chinese dishes:
* Chow mein sandwich— Sandwich of chow mein and gravy .
* Chop suey sandwich — Sandwich of chicken chop suey on a hamburger bun .
* St. Paul sandwich — Egg foo young patty in plain white sandwich bread .

Americanized versions of native Chinese dishes


* Batter-fried meat — Meat that has been deep fried in bread or flour, such as sesame chicken, lemon chicken, orange chicken, sweet and sour pork, and General Tso's chicken, is often heavily emphasized in American-style Chinese dishes. Battered meat occasionally appears in dishes, but it generally uses lighter sauces with less sugar and corn syrup.
**Chicken ball — Uses a large amount of leavening and flour in its preparation and battering process which causes them to be more similar to doughy "" than actual batter-fried meat.
*Egg drop soup — A soup of chicken broth with scrambled egg ribbons. Often served with fried noodles.

* Egg foo young — A Chinese-style omelet with vegetables and meat, usually served with a brown sauce. Also known as egg foo yung or egg foo yong.
* Egg roll — While native Chinese spring rolls have a thin crispy skin with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the Americanized version uses a thick, fried skin stuffed with cabbage and usually bits of meat or seafood . In other areas of the US outside of the Northeast, egg rolls tend to be of the spring roll/Panda Express variety.
* Fried rice — Fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to American tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, allowing restaurants to put unserved leftover rice to good use. It typically uses more soy sauce than the authentic version.
* Kung Pao chicken — The authentic Sichuan dish is very spicy, and the American versions tend to be less so.
* Lo mein — The term means "stirred noodles"; these noodles are frequently made with eggs and flour, making them chewier than simply using water. Thick, spaghetti shaped noodles are pan fried with vegetables and meat. Sometimes this dish is referred to as "chow mein" .
* Mei Fun
* Moo shu pork — The native Chinese version uses more typically Chinese ingredients and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses vegetables more familiar to Americans and thicker pancakes. This dish is quite popular in Chinese restaurants in the U.S., but not so popular in China.
* Wonton soup — In most American Chinese restaurants, only wonton dumplings in broth are served, while native Chinese versions may come with noodles. Authentic Cantonese Wonton Soup is a full meal in itself consisting of thin egg noodles and several pork and prawn wontons in a pork or chicken soup broth or noodle broth. Americanized wontons, especially in takeout restaurants, are often made with thicker dough than the authentic version.
*Cashew chicken — see Regional variations.
*Meat "with" a vegetable — Examples of common variations on this dish are pork, chicken, beef or shrimp cooked with mushrooms, snow peas, or other assorted vegetables. This dish is sometimes served with oyster sauce or with garlic sauce. These dishes are primarily variations on Cantonese-style stir-fry.

*Broccoli beef — This dish exists in native Chinese form, but using ''gai-lan'' rather than Western broccoli. Occasionally western broccoli is also referred to as ''sai lan fa'' in order not to confuse the two styles of broccoli. Among Chinese speakers, however, it is typically understood that one is referring to the leafy vegetable unless otherwise specified. This is also the case with the words for carrot or and onion . ''Lo bac'', in Cantonese, refers to the daikon, a large, blandly flavored white radish. The orange western carrot is known in some areas of China as "foreign Daikon" . When the word for onion, ''chung'', is used, it is understood that one is referring to "green onions" . The many-layered onion common to Westerners is called ''yeung chung''. This translates as "western onion". These names make it evident that the Western broccoli, carrot, and onion are not indigenous to China and therefore are less common in the cuisines of China. Hence, if a dish contains significant amounts of any of these ingredients, it has most likely been Westernized.
*Tomatoes — Since tomatoes are New World plants, they are also fairly new to China and Chinese cuisine. Tomato-based sauces can be found in some American Chinese dishes such as the popular "beef and tomato."

Traditional take-out dishes


Most American Chinese restaurants get their supplies from a few companies leading to a similarity in the menus of separate restaurants. While sit-down and buffet restaurants are more varied, most menus have the following sections:
*Appetizers— usually including Chinese spare ribs, Teriyaki chicken or beef skewers, Prawn crackers, , chicken fingers and egg rolls. Typically these are dishes that are not served with soup or rice rice.
*Soups— including egg drop and .
*Fried Rice, Chow Mein, Chop Suey, Lo Mein, Egg Foo Young and Mu Shu- These dishes are served with rice, typically by the pint or quart. They are normally divided into vegetable, roast pork, chicken, beef, shrimp, occasionally lobster, and 'house special' or "combination" usually the first four ingredients together.
*Roast or — Usually the smallest section , mostly "with" dishes
*Chicken — Moo Goo Gai Pan, Kung Po, and most of the "with" dishes
*Beef — Beef with Broccoli, Pepper Steak, and "with " dishes
*Seafood — Basically shrimp with the occasional scallop or lobster dish.
*Special Diet Plates and Vegetable and Tofu — Vegetarian and low-calorie dishes
*Combination platters — More expensive than the previous dishes, these come with fried rice and usually an egg roll. Usually you'll find General Tso's and Sesame Chicken here, along with the most popular of the other dishes.
*Chef's Specialties — the most expensive dishes that normally include multiple meats and vegetables.

The back of the menu often has Lunch Specials, which are normally a smaller version of the combination platters offered only at lunch for less money.

Regional variations on American Chinese cuisine


San Francisco


Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by the cuisine of California have opened in San Francisco and the Bay Area. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly.

This new cuisine has exotic ingredients like mangos and portobello mushrooms. Brown rice is often offered as an optional alternative to white rice.

Some restaurants substitute grilled wheat flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes. This occurs even in some restaurant that would not otherwise be identified as California Chinese, both the more Americanized places and the more authentic places. There is a Mexican bakery that sells some restaurants thinner tortillas made for use with mu shu. Mu shu purists do not always react positively to this trend.

In addition, many restaurants serving more native-style Chinese cuisines exist, due to the high numbers and proportion of ethnic Chinese in San Francisco and the Bay Area. Restaurants specializing in Cantonese, Szechuan, Hunan, Mandarin, Taiwanese, and Hong Kong traditions are widely available, as are more specialized restaurants such as seafood restaurants, , dim sum teahouses, and hot pot restaurants. Many Chinatown areas also feature Chinese bakeries, boba milk tea shops, , , and specialized dessert shops. Chop suey is not widely available in San Francisco, and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.

Authentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer 黃毛雞 , essentially a chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu.

Dau Miu , or bean sprouts, is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.

Hawaii


Hawaiian-Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii and the history of the , resident Chinese cuisine forms a component of the cuisine of Hawaii, which is a of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of plate lunches in Hawaii. The names of foods are different as well, such as ''Manapua'', from Hawaiian meaning "chewed up pork" for dim sum ''bao'', though the meat is not necessarily pork. Chinese food in Hawaii is also noted for its use of .

American Chinese chain restaurants


* China Coast — Now defunct, closed in 1995; owned by General Mills Corp., formerly 52 locations throughout the USA
* City Wok — Locations in California, Colorado, Florida and North Carolina
* Leeann Chin — Locations in Minnesota and Wisconsin; owned at one time by General Mills Corp.
* Manchu Wok — Nationwide in the USA and Canada, as well as Guam, Korea and Japan
* Panda Express — Nationwide in the USA
* Pei Wei Asian Diner — Locations in the western and southwestern USA; a subsidiary of P.F. Chang's
* P. F. Chang's China Bistro — Nationwide in the USA; features California-Chinese fusion cuisine
* Pick Up Stix — Locations in California, Arizona and Nevada

Pork meatball

Pork meatball may refer to:

*Lion's head
*Pork ball

Thursday, September 18, 2008

Paomo

Paomo is a specialty of Shaanxi cuisine and is a typical food eaten in Xi'an. It is a hot stew of chopped-up steamed bread and glass noodles cooked in broth and served with lamb meat. It is often eaten with pickled garlic and chili sauce.

Mung bean

Mung bean, also known as green bean, mung, moong, mash bean, munggo or monggo, green gram, golden gram, and green soy, is the seed of ''Vigna radiata'' which is native to India. The split bean is known as moong dal, which is green with the husk, and yellow when dehusked. The beans are small, ovoid in shape, and green in color. The English word "mung" derives from the Hindi ''moong''. It is also known by the names ''hesaru bele'' , ''moog'' , ''paasi payir or payirtham payir'' , ''cheru payaru'' , ''pesalu'' . In the Philippines, it is called ''munggo'' or ''monggo''. In Cantonese it is called luk6 dao6 . In Vietnamese, it is called ''??u xanh''. In Greek is called rovitsa .

The mung bean is one of many species recently moved from the genus ''Phaseolus'' to ''Vigna'' and is still often seen cited as ''Phaseolus aureus'' or ''Phaseolus radiatus''. These are all the same plant.

Climate and soil


Mung beans are mainly cultivated in India, Indonesia, China,
Burma, and Bangladesh. In India and Bangladesh, they are grown during two seasons. One is the Rabi season , and the other is the Kharif season . Mung beans are tropical crops, and require warm temperatures . Loamy soil is best for mung bean cultivation.

Uses


Mung beans are commonly used in Chinese cuisine, where they are called ''lǜ dòu'' , as well as in Japan, Korea, India, Thailand and Southeast Asia. In Vietnam, they are called ''??u xanh'' . They are generally eaten either whole or as bean sprouts, or used to make the dessert "green bean soup". The starch of mung beans is also extracted from them to make jellies and "transparent/cellophane" noodles. In Vietnam, the transparent wrapping of Vietnamese spring rolls is made from mung bean flour. In Filipino cuisine, meat is sauteed with garlic, onions, and bay leaves, then mung beans are added and cooked. Mung batter is used to make crepes named Pesarattu in Andhra Pradesh, India.

Whole



Whole mung beans are generally prepared from dried beans by boiling until they are soft. In Chinese cuisine, whole mung beans are used to make a ''tong sui'', or sweet soup, called ''lǜdòu tāng'', which is served either warm or chilled. In Indonesia, they are made into a popular dessert snack called ''es kacang hijau'', which has the consistency of a porridge. The beans are cooked with sugar, coconut milk, and a little ginger. Although whole mung beans are also occasionally used in Indian cuisine, beans without skins are more commonly used; but in Kerala, whole moong dal is commonly boiled to make a dry preparation that is often had with rice gruel . the Philippines, It is the main ingredient of the dessert ''hopiang munggo''.

Without skins



With their skins removed, mung beans are light yellow in color. They are made into mung bean paste by de-hulling, cooking, and pulverizing the beans to the consistency of a dry paste. The paste is sweetened and is similar in texture to red bean paste though the smell is slightly more bean-like. In several Asian countries, de-hulled mung beans and mung bean paste are made into ice creams or frozen ice pops and are very popular dessert items. In Taiwan, mung bean paste is a common filling for moon cakes. In China, the boiled and shelled beans are used as filling in glutinous rice dumplings eaten during the dragon boat festival 端午节.

Dehulled mung beans can also be used in a similar fashion as whole beans for the purpose of making sweet soups. Mung beans in some regional are stripped of their outer coats to make mung dal. In other regions of India such as Andhra Pradesh, a delicious vegetable preparation is made using fresh grated coconut, green chillies, mung and typical South Indian spices - asafoetida, turmeric, ginger, mustard seeds, urad lentil. In south Indian states, mung beans are also eaten as pancakes. They are soaked in water for 6 to 12 hours . Then they are ground into fine paste along with ginger, salt. Then pancakes are made on a very hot griddle. These are usually eaten for breakfast. This provides high quality protein in a raw form that is rare in most Indian regional cuisines. Pongal is another recipe that is made with rice and mung beans without skin.

In Kerala, It is commonly used to make the parippu preparation in Travancore region . It is also used, with coconut milk and jaggery) to make the a type of payasam.

In India the mung beans are also consumed as a snack. The dried mung beans are soaked in water, then partly dried to a dry matter content of approx. 42% before and then in hot oil. The frying time varies between 60 and 90 seconds. The fat content of this snack is around 20%. This snack is traditionally prepared at home and is now also available from industrial producers.

Bean sprouts




Mung bean are germinated by leaving them watered with 4 hours of daytime light and spending the rest of the day in the dark. Mung bean sprouts can be grown under artificial light for 4 hours over the period of a week. Fluorescent bulbs or incandescent light bulbs would be the best to use for mung bean sprouts. They are usually sold simply as "bean sprouts," and are known as dòu yá , yá cài , or yín yá in , and Hokkien , ''moyashi'' in , ''tauge'' in , ''taugeh'' in , ''togue'' in , ''thua-ngok'' in , and ''giá ??u'' or ''giá ??'' in .


Mung bean sprouts are as a vegetable accompaniment to a meal, usually with ingredients such as garlic, ginger, , or pieces of salted dried fish to add flavor. Uncooked bean sprouts are used in filling for spring rolls, as well as as a garnish for ''ph?''. They are a major ingredient in a variety of and including ''char kway teow'', ''Hokkien mee'', ''mee rebus'', and ''''. In Korea, slightly cooked mung bean sprouts, called ''sukjunamul'' , are often served as a side dish. They are : placed into boiling water for less than a minute, immediately cooled down in cold water, and mixed with sesame oil, garlic, salt, and often other ingredients. In the Philippines, mung bean sprouts are made into "''lumpia'' roll" called ''lumpiang tugi''.

Mung bean sprouts are the major bean sprouts in most Asian countries. In Korea, soybean sprouts, called ''kongnamul'' are more widely used in a variety of dishes.

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mung bean is one of the lima beans.

Sources


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Lumpia

Lumpia are pastries of the Philippines and Indonesia of origin and are similar to spring rolls. The term ''lumpia'' derives from ''lunpia'' in the language. The recipe, both fried and fresh versions, was brought by the Chinese immigrants from the Fujian province of China to Southeast Asia and became popular where they settled in the Philippines and Indonesia.
In the Netherlands, it is spelled ''loempia'' which is the old spelling for lumpia and has also become the generic name for "spring roll" in . A variant is the lumpia, wrapped in a thinner piece of pastry, in a size close to a spring roll though the wrapping closes the ends off completely, which is typical for lumpia.

Varieties


Indonesian



Lumpia Basah


It literally means "wet spring roll" which means spring roll without frying. It is similar to the spring roll with bean sprouts, carrots, shrimp and/or chicken, and served with sweet ''tauco'' sauce.

Lumpia Semarang



Named after the capital city of Central Java in Indonesia, Semarang. It was created by Chinese immigrants in the city of Semarang. It is filled with bamboo shoots, dried shrimp chicken and/or prawn. It is served with lumpia sauce that is made from dried shrimp , coconut sugar, red chillies, bird's eye chilies, water, ground white pepper, tapioca starch and water and can be served in either fried or unfried condition.

Filipino


Lumpia Hubad


''Lumpiang Hubad'' literally means ''naked spring roll''. It is basically an unwrapped ''Lumpiang Sariwa'' .

Lumpiang Sariwa



''Lumpiang Sariwa'', or ''fresh spring rolls'' in English, consist of minced ''ubod'' , flaked chicken, , and turnips as an extender in a double wrapping of lettuce leaf and a yellowish egg crepe. The accompanying sauce is made from chicken or pork stock, a starch mixture, and . This variety is not fried and is usually around 2 inches in diameter and 6 inches in length; it is also the most popular among the Filipino variants.

Lumpiang Shanghai


This type of ''lumpia'' is filled with ground pork, minced onion, carrots, and spices with the mixture held together by . It may sometimes contain s. Both ''lumpiang shanghai'' and the sweet and sour sauce are served with attests to the influence. This variety is by standard an inch in diameter and approximately 4-6 inches in length. However, most restaurants and street vendors often serve ''lumpia'' shanghai in smaller diameters, typically one-half to three-quarter inches, and is served with a spicy sauce instead of a sweet and sour sauce.

Lumpiang Prito



''Lumpiang Prito'' literally means ''fried spring roll''. It consists of a briskly fried pancake filled with bean sprouts and various other vegetables such as string beans and carrots. Small morsels of meat or seafood may also be added. Though it is the least expensive of the variants, the preparation – the cutting of vegetables and meats into appropriately small pieces and subsequent pre-cooking – may prove taxing and labor-intensive. This variant may come in sizes as little as that of ''lumpiang'' shanghai or as big as that of ''lumpiang sariwa''. It is usually eaten with vinegar and chili peppers, or a soy sauce-and-calamondin juice mixture known as ''toyo-mansi''.

Lumpiang Ubod



This is another variation of the Filipino spring rolls which is made from coconut julienne or heart of palm. ''Lumpiang Ubod'' is a specialty of Silay City, Negros Occidental.

Banana Lumpia or Turon


Banana ''lumpia'' or ''Turon'' is a Philippine dessert, made of thinly sliced bananas , a slice of jackfruit, dusted with brown sugar, rolled in crepe and fried. Brown sugar is further added while frying for additional sweetness.

Popularity


''Lumpia'' has such enduring popularity that one can see at least one variant in almost any set of Filipino or Indonesian festivities. Its distinct taste and ease of preparation has caused it to be one of the staple food products on the menus of many Filipino restaurants in the United States, including Jollibee and Chowking.

Longjing prawns

Longjing prawns, also known as shrimp stir-fried with Dragon Well tea, is a specialty of Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, produced using the meat of live coated with egg white and moistened starch, fried in lard at a medium-low temperature for 15 seconds, removed from the oil and drained when jade-white in colour, and then quickly stir-fried over extreme heat with boiling water infused with Longjing tea, tea leaves and Shaoxing wine. This dish consists primarily of white and green colours; the colours are elegant and the flavour is light and fragrant. According to legend it arose when the emperor Qianlong visited the . Hangzhou's famous Louwailou restaurant is a well-known producer of Longjing prawns.

List of sources of Chinese culinary history

This is a list of sources of a Chinese Culinary History:

*Zhouli zhushu 周礼注疏(天官冢宰及其他)
*Yili zhushu 仪礼注疏(燕礼、特牲馈食礼、少牢馈食礼及其它)
*Liji zhengyi 礼记正义(八珍及其它)
*Lüshi Chunqiu 吕氏春秋(本味篇)
*Simin yueling jiaozhu 四民月令(部分)
*Shijing 食经 (北魏?卢氏 著)
*Nanfang caomu zhuang 南方草木状
*Qinjing 禽经
*Shizhen lu 食珍录
*Qimin yaoshu 齐民要术(卷1-7部分)
*Shijing 食经 (隋?谢讽 著)
*Beitang shuchao 北堂书钞(酒食部)
*Yiwen Leiju 艺文类聚(卷72食物部其它)
*Beiji Qianjin yaofang 备急千金要方(卷26食治)
*Shipu 食谱
*Shiliao bencao 食疗本草(1卷残)
*Chajing 茶经
*Jiancha shuiji 煎茶水记
*Shiyi xinjian 食医心鉴
*Youyang zazu 酉阳杂俎(酒食)
*Lingbiao lu yiji 岭表录异记(部分)
*Shanfujing shoulu 膳夫经手录
*Shanfulu 膳夫录
*Qingyilu 清异录
*Taiping yulan 太平御览(卷843-867饮食)
*Sunpu 笋谱
*Benxinzhai shushipu 本心斋蔬食谱
*Shanjia qinggong 山家清供
*Rucao jishi 茹草记事
*Shidafu shishi wuguan 士大夫食时五观
*Shouqin yanglao xinshu 寿亲养老新书
*Beishan jiujing 北山酒经
*Yushipi 玉食批
*Chalu 茶录
*Lizhi pu 荔枝谱
*Dongxi shichalu 东溪试茶录
*Pincha yaolu 品茶要录
*Jiupu 酒谱
*Julu 橘录
*Tangshuang pu 糖霜谱
*Xuanhe beiyuan gongcha lu 宣和北苑贡茶录
*Beizuan bielu 北苑别录
*Xiepu 蟹谱
*Xielüe 蟹略
*Junpu 菌谱
*Dongjing meng Hua lu 东京梦华录(部分)
*Ducheng jisheng 都城纪胜
*Wulin jiu shi 武林旧事
*Nan Song shisi ji 南宋市肆记
*Mengliang lu 梦粱录
*Zhongkuilu 中馈录
*Fanshenglu 繁胜录(bufen 部分)
*Shiwu bencao 食物本草(Jin Li Gao 金?李杲)
*Nongshu 农书(bufen 部分)
*Rizong bencao 日用本草
*Yinshan zhengyao 饮膳正要
*Nongsang yishi cuoyao 农桑衣食撮要(bufen 部分)
*Yinshi xuzhi 饮食须知
*Yunlin tang yinshi zhidu ji 云林堂饮食制度集
*Jujia biyong shilei quanji 居家必用事类全集(gengji 庚集, jiji 己集)
*Zhuanshi 馔史
*Yiya yiyi 易牙遗意
*Tian chu ju zhen miao zhuan ji 天厨聚珍妙馔集
*Shenyin 神隐(又名:Quxian shenyin shu 臞仙神隐书)(部分)
*Jiuhuang bencao 救荒本草
*Bianmin tu zuan 便民图纂(卷15食品及其它)
*Yecai pu 野菜谱
*Songshi yangsheng bu 宋氏养生部
*Yunlin yishi 云林遗事
*Shiwu bencao 食物本草(明?卢和)
*Shipin ji 食品集
*Guang junpu 广菌谱
*Bencao gangmu 本草纲目
*Mo E xiao lu 墨娥小录(饮膳集珍及其它)
*Duo neng bi shi 多能鄙事(卷1-4饮食)
*Rucao ben 茹草编
*Jujia bibei 居家必备(卷7饮馔)
*Zunsheng bajian 遵生八笺(饮馔服食笺)
*Yesupin 野蔌品
*Haiwei suoyin 海味索引
*Minzhong haicuoshu 闽中海错疏
*Yecai jian 野菜笺83、食鉴本草
*Shantang sikao 山堂肆考(羽集衣食部)
*Yecai bolu 野菜博录
*Shangyi bencao 上医本草
*Hangzheng 觞政
*Nongzheng quanshu 农政全书
*Yangyu yueling 养余月令
*Jiushi 酒史
*Xianqing ouji 闲情偶寄(饮馔部颐养部)
*Min xiao ji 闽小记
*Yinshi xuzhi 饮食须知( Zhu Tailai 朱泰来)
*Tiaodingji 调鼎集
*Shiwu bencao huizuan 食物本草会纂
*Jiangnan yuxianpin 江南鱼鲜品
*Gui'eryue 簋贰约
*Riyong suzi 日用俗字(饮食章菜蔬章)
*Shixian hongmi 食宪鸿秘
*Fan you shi’er heshuo 饭有十二合说
*Yuanjian leihan 渊鉴类函(食物及其它)
*Juchang yinzhuan lu 居常饮馔录
*Gujin tushu jicheng 古今图书集成(经济汇编食物典卷257~308饮食部)
*Xu chajing 续茶经
*Gezhi jingyuan 格致镜原(卷6饮食类)
*Nongpu bianlan 农圃便览(部分)
*Xingyuan lu 醒园录
*Zhoupu shuo 粥谱说
*Yangsheng suibi 养生随笔
*Suiyuan shidan 随园食单
*Wu xun pu 吴蕈谱
*Yinshi xuzhi 饮食须知(清?朱本中)
*Jihai pu 记海错
*Zhengsuwen 证俗文(卷1 及其它)
*Xilüe 醯略
*Yangxiaolu 养小录
*Yangzhou huafang lu 扬州画舫录(部分)
*Tiaoji yinshi bian 调疾饮食辨(6卷、卷末1卷)
*Qing jia lu 清嘉录(部分)
*Tongqiao yizhao lu 桐桥倚棹录(卷10市廛)
*Suixiju yinshipu 随息居饮食谱
*Yinengpian 艺能篇(治庖)
*Zhongkui lu 中馈录(清?彭崧毓)
*Huya 湖雅(卷8酿造、铒饼)
*Zhongkui lu 中馈录(清?曾懿)
*Zhoupu 粥谱 Guang Zhoupu 广粥谱
*Xinbian jiazhengxue 新编家政学(第四编第三章饮食)
*Chengdu tonglan 成都通览(卷7饮食类)
*Zaoyangfan shu 造洋饭书
*Shipin jiawei beilan 食品佳味备览
*Qingbai leichao 清稗类钞(第47、48册饮食类)
*Pengren yiban 烹饪一斑
*Jiating shipu 家庭食谱
*Xican pengren mijue 西餐烹饪秘诀
*Jiating shipu xubian 家庭食谱续编
*Jiating shipu sanbian 家庭食谱三编
*Jiating shipu sibian 家庭食谱四编
*Sushi pu 素食谱
*Jiashi shixi baojian 家事实习宝鉴(第二编饮食论)
*Zhijia quanshu 治家全书(卷10烹饪篇食谱)
*Jiating wanbao quanshu 家庭万宝全书(卷5烹饪学)
*Sushi shenglun 素食养生论
*Shanghai kuailan 上海快览(第6篇上海之饮食)
*Shiwu xin bencao 食物新本草
*Qinan kuailan 济南快览(衣食、中西餐馆)
*Beiping caipu 北平菜谱
*Minzhong changshi congshu 民众常识丛书(烹饪类)
*Jinan daguan 济南大观(第96章中西餐)
*Taomu pengrenfa 陶母烹饪法
*Yinshi yu jiankang 饮食与健康
*Beiping fengsu leizheng 北平风俗类征(饮食)
*Feishi shiyang sanzhong 费氏食养三种
*Shiyong yinshixue 实用饮食学
*Xin shipu 新食谱(第二册普通食物成分表)
*Sushi shuolü 素食说略
*Chifan wenti 吃饭问题

La Choy

La Choy is a brand name of canned and prepackaged Chinese food ingredients. The brand is currently owned by ConAgra Foods.

La Choy was founded in 1922 by Dr. Ilhan New , later founder of in Korea and Wally Smith, from the University of Michigan. The first product, canned bean sprouts, was originally sold in Smith's Detroit grocery store.

The longtime commercial jingle included the slogan "LaChoy makes Chinese foods swing American", .

Kumquat

The kumquats or cumquats are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the genus ''Fortunella'' related to the ''Citrus'' in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, often segregated as a separate genus, ''Fortunella''. The edible fruit closely resembles that of the but is smaller and is often oval.

They are slow-growing, evergreen shrubs or small trees, from tall, with dense branches, sometimes bearing small s. The are dark glossy green, and the flowers pure white, similar to other citrus flowers, borne singly or clustered in the leaf-axils. The kumquat tree produces 80 to 100 fruit each year. The tree can be hydrophytic, and fruit is often found floating near the shore during the kumquat season.

Kumquats originated in China , and have long been cultivated there and in Japan. They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society, and shortly thereafter into North America. Originally placed in the genus ''Citrus'', they were transferred to the genus ''Fortunella'' in 1915, though subsequent work favours their return to inclusion in ''Citrus''.

Four or five species are currently accepted:
*''Fortunella crassifolia'' - Meiwa Kumquat. Generally eaten fresh, skin-on, instead of cooked.
*''Fortunella hindsii'' - Hong Kong Kumquat
*''Fortunella japonica'' - Marumi or Nagami Kumquat. Tart, prized for staying fresh on the tree longer, generally cooked or peeled.
*''Fortunella obovata'' - Jiangsu or Fukushu Kumquat
*''Fortunella polyandra'' - Malayan Kumquat

Kumquats readily with other members of the genus ''Citrus'' and with the closely related . These hybrids are known as Citrofortunella; examples include the limequat, orangequat, and calamondin.

In appearance the kumquat fruit resembles a miniature orange, long and wide. Depending on variety, peel colour ranges from yellow to red. A Nagami kumquat has an oval shape, while a Marumi kumquat is round.

Kumquat fruit is generally in season from late autumn to mid-winter, and can be found in most food markets with other produce.

Cultivation and uses


Kumquats are cultivated in China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Japan, the Middle East, Europe , and the southern United States

They are much hardier than other citrus plants such as . The 'Nagami' kumquat requires a hot summer, ranging from 25 to 38°C , but can withstand frost down to about without injury. It grows in the tea balls of China where the climate is too cold for other citrus fruits, even the Mikan orange. The trees differ also from other Citrus species in that they enter into a period of winter dormancy so profound that they will remain through several weeks of subsequent warm weather without putting out new shoots or blossoms. Despite their ability to survive low temperatures, as in the vicinity of San Francisco, California, the kumquat trees grow better and produce larger and sweeter fruits in warmer regions.


Propagation


Kumquats are rarely grown from seed as they do not do well on their own roots. In China and Japan they are onto the trifoliate orange . This has been found the best rootstock for kumquats in northern Florida and California and for dwarfing for pot culture. For this reason they are often known as "Dwarf Fruit". Sour orange and grapefruit are suitable rootstocks for southern Florida. Rough lemon is unsatisfactory in moist soils and tends to be too vigorous for the slow-growing kumquats.

Uses


Kumquats are frequently eaten raw. As the is sweet and the juicy centre is sour, the raw fruit is usually consumed either whole, to savour the contrast, or only the rind is eaten. The fruit is considered ripe when it reaches a yellowish-orange stage, and has just shed the last tint of green. The Hong Kong Kumquat has a rather sweet rind compared to the rinds of other citrus fruits.



Culinary uses include: candying and kumquat preserves, marmalade, and . Kumquats appear more commonly in the modern market as a martini garnish, replacing the classic olive. They can also be sliced and added to salads. A liqueur can also be made by kumquats in vodka or other clear spirit.

The often preserve kumquats in salt or sugar. A batch of the fruit is buried in dry salt inside a glass jar. Over time, all the juice from the fruit is extracted through dehydration into the salt. The fruit in the jar becomes shrunken, wrinkled, and dark brown in color, and the salt combines with the juice to become a dark brown brine. A few salted kumquats with a few teaspoons of the brine/juice may be mixed with hot water to make a remedy for sore throats. A jar of such preserved kumquats can last several years and still keep taste.

In Taiwan, kumquats are a popular addition to both hot and iced tea.

In Vietnam, kumquat bonsai trees are used as a decoration for the T?t holiday.

Variants of the kumquat are grown specially in India.

Etymology


The English name "kumquat" derives from the pronunciation ''gam1 gwat1'' . The alternate name , also pronounced ''gam1 gwat1'' in Cantonese is now more commonly written by Cantonese speakers.

Names in other Asian languages include:
*: ''kinkan''
*: ''geumgyul''
*: ''gīm-gam''
*: ''jīnjú''
*: ''muntala''
*: ''somchíd''
*: ''cam qu?t'' or, less commonly, '' kim qu?t''

References and external links



* on CultureSheet.org
*Burkill, I. H. . An enumeration of the species of Paramignya, Atalantia and Citrus, found in Malaya. ''Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem''. 5: 212–220.
*Mabberley, D. J. . Australian Citreae with notes on other Aurantioideae . ''Telopea'' 7 : 333-344. Available .
*
* Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants
*'''' at Wikispecies